Review#

Checklist of Key Concepts#

Section 2.1: Introduction to Statistical Mechanics#

  1. Microscopic–Macroscopic Connection

    • Macroscopic (thermodynamic) properties can be understood as statistical averages of microscopic properties.

    • “Expected value” (ensemble average) is the central idea: \(\langle X \rangle = \sum X_i\,p_i\).

  2. Arithmetic Average vs. Expected Value

    • Arithmetic average: \(\bar{X} = \frac{1}{M}\sum X_i\).

    • Expected value: \(\langle X \rangle = \sum X_i\,p_i\), where \(p_i\) is the probability of microstate \(i\).

  3. Microstates and Ensembles

    • Microcanonical ensemble: \((N, V, E)\) — all accessible microstates have the same \(E\).

    • Canonical ensemble: \((N, V, T)\) — system can exchange energy with a heat bath.

    • Grand canonical ensemble: \((\mu, V, T)\) — system exchanges both energy and particles with the reservoir.

  4. Fundamental Postulate (Microcanonical)

    • For an isolated system, each accessible microstate is equally probable.

Section 2.2: Canonical Ensemble#

  1. Closed System

    • Exchanges energy (heat) with surroundings; cannot exchange matter.

  2. Boltzmann Factor and Partition Function

    • Probability of microstate \(i\):

      \[ p_i = \frac{e^{-\beta E_i}}{Q}, \quad \beta = \frac{1}{k_{\text{B}} T}. \]
    • Partition function \(Q\): normalizes probabilities; sum of Boltzmann factors over all states:

      \[ Q = \sum_{i} e^{-\beta E_i}. \]
  3. Two-State System

    • Simplest nontrivial example: energies \(E_1\) and \(E_2\).

    • Partition function: \(Q = e^{-\beta E_1} + e^{-\beta E_2}\).

    • Probabilities:

      \[ p_1 = \frac{1}{1 + e^{-\beta\,\Delta E}}, \quad p_2 = 1 - p_1, \quad \Delta E = E_2 - E_1. \]
  4. Interpretation of \(Q\)

    • “Effective number” of thermally accessible microstates; as \(T \to 0\), few states are accessible; as \(T \to \infty\), many states are accessible.

Section 2.3: Ensemble Averages#

  1. Internal Energy

    • \(U \equiv \langle E \rangle\).

    • In canonical ensemble:

      \[ U = \frac{1}{Q}\sum_i E_i\, e^{-\beta E_i} = -\left(\frac{\partial \ln Q}{\partial \beta}\right)_{N,V}. \]
  2. Heat Capacity (\(C_V\))

    • \(C_V = \bigl(\frac{\partial U}{\partial T}\bigr)_{N,V}\).

    • Also relates to energy fluctuations:

      \[ \sigma_E^2 \;=\; \langle(E - \langle E\rangle)^2\rangle \;=\; k_{\text{B}}\,T^2\,C_V. \]
  3. Pressure (brief introduction)

    • Later formal definition involves \(\bigl(\frac{\partial U}{\partial V}\bigr)_{S}\).

    • In canonical ensemble, \(\displaystyle P \;=\; k_{\text{B}}\,T\,\bigl(\frac{\partial\ln Q}{\partial V}\bigr)_{N,T}\).


2. Checklist of Most Important Equations#

  1. Expected Value of a General Variable

    \[ \langle X \rangle \;=\;\sum_i X_i\,p_i \quad\text{or}\quad \int X(\omega)\,p(\omega)\,d\omega. \]
    • Applicability: general definition in statistical mechanics/probability theory.

  2. Microcanonical Ensemble (Fundamental Postulate)

    \[ p_i \;=\;\frac{1}{M} \quad\text{(for all accessible microstates)}. \]
    • Applicability: isolated system with fixed \((N, V, E)\).

  3. Canonical Ensemble Probability

    \[ p_i \;=\;\frac{e^{-\beta\,E_i}}{Q}, \quad \beta = \frac{1}{k_{\text{B}}\,T}, \]
    • Applicability: closed system in thermal equilibrium with a heat bath at temperature \(T\).

  4. Canonical Partition Function

    \[ Q \;=\;\sum_i e^{-\beta\,E_i}. \]
    • Applicability: all systems that can be described by \((N, V, T)\); sum or integral runs over all microstates.

  5. Internal Energy in the Canonical Ensemble

    \[ U \;=\;\langle E\rangle \;=\;\frac{1}{Q}\,\sum_i E_i\,e^{-\beta E_i} \;=\;-\left(\frac{\partial \ln Q}{\partial \beta}\right)_{N,V}. \]
    • Applicability: same as above (canonical ensemble).

  6. Heat Capacity at Constant Volume

    \[ C_V \;=\; \left(\frac{\partial U}{\partial T}\right)_{N,V}. \]
    • Applicability: measures how internal energy changes with \(T\) when \(N, V\) are constant.

  7. Energy Fluctuations

    \[ \sigma_E^2 \;=\;\langle E^2\rangle - \langle E\rangle^2 \;=\; k_{\text{B}}\,T^2\,C_V. \]
    • Applicability: canonical ensemble; relates variance in energy to the heat capacity.

  8. Pressure (Canonical)

    \[ P \;=\; k_{\text{B}}\,T \,\left(\frac{\partial \ln Q}{\partial V}\right)_{N,T}. \]
    • Applicability: canonical ensemble; a precursor to more rigorous derivation using thermodynamic potentials.